DECISION-MAKING AND PROBLEM-SOLVING
Life
can be viewed as a constant series of decisions. Only by making rational decisions do we "take charge" of our lives. Some
decisions seem unimportant but are important. For example, every minute or two we answer, by our behavior, the question: What is the
best use of my time right now? (See next method.) Any one decision about the next couple of minutes of our lives may be trivial
but taken altogether the cumulative effect of conscientiously making those millions of decisions determines the outcome of our lives. Likewise,
some admittedly important decisions, such as mate selection, career choice, when and if to have children, and values, are often
impulsively or casually made. And, some unimportant decisions (because there aren't significant differences among the choices),
such as what car or appliance to buy, are carefully made, based on precise technical data. Some decisions are made alone and
others are made under tremendous social pressure, such as when to have sex, what religion to accept, and what to do socially
with peers.
Nevertheless, all good decision-making or problem solving methods follow the same process:
1. Understand the problem
and goals clearly, so you can consider a wide variety of alternative courses of action.
2. The creation of many
possible solutions to the problem. You can't use an inventive solution unless it has been thought of.
3. Collect all the conveniently available information about the probable outcome of each
course of action. See if there aren't synergistic ways of combining several promising solutions into potent solutions.
4. Weigh the pros and cons
of each course of action (solution), then decide on one that you can commit yourself to fully.
Some writers emphasize the cognitive processes of generating creative solutions, gathering
expert opinions, assessing the probable outcomes of each alternative, etc. Other writers emphasize (a) the
barriers to good decision-making, such as impatience with gathering data, (b) the consequences of feeling inadequate, dependent,
or scared, (c) the restrictions imposed by wanting to be admired or loved, and so on. Both the right steps and the emotional
pitfalls
are important. I'll summarize both.
Several types of decisions are discussed, but choosing a career serves as my example of a complex, important decision.
Several useful books about career choice are cited at the end of this section, especially note the most recent
Bolles (1995+) and Sinetar(1987). If you have a history of mental/emotional problems, Lavine (1996)
addresses the special problems you will face.
Purposes
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To make decisions more rationally and wisely.
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To recognize that we really do have a choice about many important things in our lives.
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To avoid making decisions sloppily or by default.
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To avoid a variety of irrational ideas, false assumptions, fears, needs, and other emotions that block good decision-making.
Steps
STEP ONE: Decide if there is a problem. If so, describe
and understand the problem, see some solutions, and accept the challenge to tackle the problem.
A problem
well stated is half solved, according to an old adage. Perhaps the first question is: Is there a problem? No need to worry
about something that never happens. Perhaps you should also ask: Am I exaggerating or minimizing the problem? If in doubt, better
ask someone else. But if there are likely to be serious difficulties, then ask yourself: Are there solutions to this problem? Do
I have time to do something about the problem? In short, is it a manageable, solvable problem? And, am I overly optimistic or pessimistic?
The situation
may be an opportunity rather than a problem. Am I willing to accept the challenge with enthusiasm?
In chapter two, the second and third steps in self-help are designed to clarify the problem: observe how serious it
is and try to understand the problem by analyzing it into five parts--behavior, emotions, skills, cognitive, and unconscious
factors. Understanding the problem helps us find a solution.
Some writers have suggested that you list the forces pushing you in the desired direction
and the forces restraining you from reaching your goals.
Example:
Goal
Making a 3.75 GPA
Helpful Forces
Future career plans
Parent's encourangement
Girlfriend's Studying
Interesting Instructors
Good Intellectual Ability
Harmful Forces
Wanting to be in a fraternity
Alcohol and Drug use every night
Procrastination
Lack of organization and drive
Not wanting to test ability
It is
clear that the problem of making a 3.75 or better can not be understood without considering many variables. Most problems
are equally complex. The solutions will surely involve trying to strengthen the helpful forces and weaken the harmful forces.
So, there are many, many decisions to be made in solving any problem, many of these decisions are hidden or avoided.
STEP TWO: If you know what the problem is, now decide
what you want in the future. What do you value? Set major goals in terms of specific behaviors.
Suppose
you are trying to decide on a career. Obviously, your major purpose in life is critical here. Do you want to make lots of
money and have lots of things? Is that more important than having a gratifying job in which you help people with problems? Is
status and self-satisfaction more important than money to you? Are you willing or even eager to work 60-70 hours a week instead of socializing?
Is money, status, and things more important to you than having a good time with friends and your family? Different jobs offer different
payoffs and demand different things from us; the best career for us depends on what we want to get and what we want to give,
which depends on our values, our abilities, and our motivation.
If you
have decided on a philosophy of life (chapter 3), most other decisions are made much easier. What does and/or should take
priority in your life? Socializing, work, romance, sex, family, money, health, children, being alone and comfortable, status, looks, education,
religion, playing, thinking, art or music, excitement or pleasure, being good or what? If you don't know your priorities, you
can't decide where to go in life.
Don't
cop out by saying you "want it all." It is rarely possible. You can't become a doctor, lawyer, psychologist, etc. and spend
three or four hours every school night listening to music or TV or being with friends. You probably can't be outstanding in
your corporation and be the "world's greatest father or mother" too. You have to set priorities, either consciously or simply by how you
spend your time.
STEP THREE: After deciding to deal with the problem
and deciding on goals, it is crucial to think of as many solutions or courses of action as you can. A final decision can not be better than the possibilities considered.
A common difficulty at this stage is the defeatist notion, "I can't find any good solutions." Such a person may be
able to learn to go to the opposite extreme, i.e. create as many possible approaches as possible without
being concerned, at first, with how well the idea will work. It may be wise to gather ideas from experts or experienced people or from
groups, as in "brainstorming." Brainstorming in a group is based on three principles: (1) the more solutions generated the better,
(2) initially suspend your judgment about the quality of the ideas, i.e. judgment inhibits imagination, so don't inhibit yourself
or your
group by saying "Oh, that's a silly idea" or "that would never be approved," and (3) the greater variety of ideas the more
likely you are to find a good solution. Therefore, brainstorming follows these rules in the first stage: no criticism of any
idea, all comments are "off the record" (no one will be criticized for a bad idea or given credit for a good idea), encourage far out and
original ideas, and record all suggestions so everyone can see them altogether. In the second stage of brainstorming, the group
identifies the most promising ideas, combines solutions and improves each alternative until it has a list of possible approaches
to the problem.
Robert
Epstein has found that it is much better take half of the brainstorming time, say 20 minutes, for two 5-minute individual
sessions, because creativity is an individual process. He says brainstorming is better for selecting and combining good ideas
than it is for generating ideas.
In group
or alone, it is important that no good idea or compromise be overlooked. Take notes, new ideas evaporate quickly. If you are
working on a tough problem, solutions will not flow easily. Practice trying to generate solutions to impossible problems, e.g. how to generate
world peace. Give yourself time, don't obsess about the problem all the time, let your unconscious work on the problem too (such
as, during sleep or while showering). Acquiring more knowledge helps create solutions and frequently change your work environment.
Finally, build your confidence in your ability to eventually find good solutions and cope well by being creative.
Be sure
to avoid thinking in terms of either-or, e.g. either I go to college or I don't, either I get married or I don't, either I
buy a car or I travel and so on. Actually, there should be several intermediate alternatives: going to classes part-time, postponing
marriage or living together or dating around for a while, buying a cheap car and taking a shorter trip, and so on.
STEP FOUR: Every decision-maker needs to know the
psychological forces that block intelligent decisions in order to guard against the pitfalls.
Rubin
(1986) describes several unconscious barriers to decision-making: (1) Being out of touch with our (painful) feelings and (stressful)
values will block clear thinking. This also leads to accepting the way things are. People become resigned or detached and say
"I don't care" but, more accurately, they are paralyzed, i.e. unfeeling, unmotivated, uninvolved, and indecisive. (2) Self-doubt,
anxiety, depression, suppressed anger, and a lack of hope interfere with decisions and may even lead to self-defeating acts.
(3) An exaggerated notion of oneself may also lead to bad decisions, e.g. unwise decisions may be made just because they make us look
important or "successful" for the moment. (4) Being overly dependent (desperate to agree with someone, wanting to be liked, wanting glory for
self-sacrifice, or just being afraid to make waves) handicaps the decision-maker. (5) Wishful thinking in many forms (perfectionism,
wanting it all, wanting simple solutions, hoping something better will come along) messes up decision-making. (6) If we abuse
ourselves
after making a poor decision, we will avoid making decisions in the future. (7) If certain outcomes scare us, we may not seriously
consider these alternatives although they are good ones. (8) Sometimes our emotions cause us to rush decisions ("I have to decide
right now about getting married" or "having sex") or drag them out ("I'll think about it later"). Both can be disastrous. Chapter
14 has an extensive section about straight thinking which is clearly related to good decision-making.
If a
group is making a decision, it should be aware of "groupthink " (Janis & Mann, 1977). There is evidence that groups can
sometimes solve problems better than individuals alone ("two heads are better than one"), but at other times groups are very
ineffective or unreasonable ("a camel is a horse made by committee"). Groups make good decisions if the majority of members are competent
and work well together. When do groups not work well? Group members may be inhibited by (1) an insulated, overly positive group spirit ("we're
the greatest," "we are running the show," "don't be a pessimist"), such as being eager to agree with and please "the boss," and by (2) a negative atmosphere, such
as internal fighting and nasty criticism among members. How can you avoid foolish decisions by groups? Be sure the group follows
the steps in this method: be sure all reasonable alternatives are carefully and objectively considered. New ideas must be supported and refined first,
then they, like all the other solutions, must be rationally challenged ("playing devil's advocate"). Sometimes it is important to ask each individual
to express his/her opinion on a specific issue in a private way, e.g. by written comments, because groups can inhibit even the most secure among
us. In any case, group decision-making is slow but it is usually much better than one-person, private decision-making, if the group follows
the rules of good decision-making.
Obviously,
many of these emotional barriers to decision-making are hidden, especially from the person him/herself, and difficult to handle,
e.g. denial of feelings, depression, or dependency. In some cases, where you know there are blind spots, the decision may need
to be postponed until the barrier is reduced. If the decisions can't wait and if you are aware of serious psychological barriers
interfering with the decisions, you should get professional help.
STEP FIVE: Consider carefully
each of the alternatives. What are the pros and cons of each choice? How does each choice fit with your priorities? How do
you feel about each choice?
There
are two aspects to consider: (1) the facts about each choice and (2) how you feel about the future implied by each choice.
There are always logical, rational arguments for and against each choice. You must seek out facts (technical data and personal
experiences) from many sources, including experts, others who have similar problems, insightful persons, and others. You should consider
your assets and resources (and limitations and disadvantages) that could be used to overcome the problem and the opposing forces. Also, you must
decide if a certain course of action is in keeping with or in conflict with your values, e.g. how would you feel making good money
selling a shoddy product? Is sex early in a relationship against your morals? It is important to write down all the pros and
cons, putting together all the available factual information as well as your clear, predictable emotional reactions to each
alternative. Let's discuss this a little more.
Your
decision can't be based just on facts, you must also consider your subjective, intuitive or vague feelings-oriented reactions. Do this by ruminating
about each choice. Daydream about the likely outcomes for each alternative--how does each possible future feel to you? Some will
feel "right" and others "wrong." Some exciting and some scary. Ask yourself: What is the best that could happen if I make this
choice? What is the worst that could happen? Are there ways to improve the "wrong" alternatives or to overcome the fears? For
example, many people considering medicine or psychology say, "I couldn't stand to see people bleed or die" or "I would get too emotionally involved
in the patient's problems," and decide against a profession that might be an excellent choice for them. What if you could find ways of handling the
disadvantages of a certain choice? Guard against making impulsive decisions. Give yourself time to thoroughly imagine what each choice would be like--how
satisfying, how boring, how irritating, how comfortable, how ashamed or proud you would be, and so on. Use your intuition. No matter how logical
a choice may seem to be, you may not be able to live with it. Millions of people have said to themselves, "I know Joe/Jane is a nice guy/gal but I just don't want
to live with him/her for the rest of my life." Or: "I know accounting is a good career, but I couldn't be happy doing that all day every
day." Your feelings, needs, and wants must be given serious attention too. Know thyself, don't deny your feelings.
STEP SIX: Select the best solution
from among the alternatives you have considered.
Usually you can eliminate poor solutions by recognizing they won't work or require skills and resources you don't
now have. Other choices can be eliminated because they might involve too high a price--some kind of potential disaster. As with
self-help plans, try to combine two or three of the best ideas.
Two hundred years
ago, Benjamin Franklin made this recommendation: write down the pros and cons for each alternative choice and assign a weight
(0 to +10) to each pro and each con (0 to -10), indicating how important that factor is. By adding up the pros and cons (each weight)
you get a total score for each alternative choice. Then, by comparing the totals for each alternative course of action, you can usually
determine the best choice. This is a benefit/cost analysis . It should involve weighing the eventual effectiveness of the solution
in solving the problem, your emotional well being during and after the solution, the time and effort required, and your overall
personal and interpersonal well being in the end. This is a very complex process, mostly used with important decisions.
In some ordinary circumstances,
it is reasonable to select the first acceptable solution rather than continue searching for an ideal solution. Suppose at
9:00 P. M. your family needs a hotel or motel room for the night in a city filled with conventions. You had better take the first
acceptable room you find. If you have time, say it's 4:00 P. M., you might be much better off exploring the area and looking
at 3 or 4 rooms. In other instances, your intuition, as mentioned in the last step, can weigh the alternatives adequately. Watch for biases,
however. Optimists tend to over-emphasize the opportunities in certain choices while pessimists exaggerate the possible dangers in certain choices.
Usually, if the decision is a major one, you need to weigh the pros and cons, and get a second opinion to double check your
judgments.
Unfortunately, many decisions become exceedingly complex, either because there are several alternatives or many pros
and cons to consider. Moreover, the weight you would assign a pro or a con will
probably vary from time to time. Examples: if you are trying to decide among careers in psychology, medicine, chiropractic, social work,
or high school guidance, there are many factors to consider, such as length and quality of training, employment outlook, probable
income, work hours, satisfaction with the work, opportunities for private practice, status in the community, and many others.
You would have to seek out many facts. Most importantly, you should
talk to people in these fields and, if possible, have some work experience to help you get a "feel" for what the
daily routine of each career would be like for 40 years. If you are trying to decide what sexual behavior to engage in, a
very long list of pros and cons could be considered (but most of us don't). Unfortunately, you can't "try out"
each sexual alternative as you might a career choice. However, you can use your imagination.
Thus far, as is our American custom, I have been talking about the conscious processes involved
in decision-making. The ability to decide to do something and then do it is what distinguishes us
from other animals. Yet, there is evidence that many problems are solved in our sleep or in our unconscious. Moreover, Adams (1986)
points out that many aspects of our decision-making are unconscious, e.g. deciding what to observe and how (which sense) is
partly
unconscious, the assignment of weights to the pros and cons is mostly unconscious (we aren't sure exactly how we do it), it
frequently isn't clear why we select a certain solution and then see things differently a few days later, etc. Can the unconscious decision-making
powers be used? Maybe (and we can become aware of some unconscious processes and make even better decisions).
Some people claim
to benefit from trying to dream about a problem they are trying to solve. They and you can do this by consciously thinking
about the situation, the alternatives, their feelings about different choices, possible long-range outcomes, etc. as they are falling asleep.
It is as if we are asking the unconscious to think about our problem. Sometimes, a new solution pops into our mind the next morning
or comes to us the next day. It is worth a try.
STEP SEVEN: Accepting the best
choice... Letting it sink in... Stop obsessing about the decision... Letting go of the unselected options.
After making a decision,
it takes a little time to reprogram your thinking, to fully commit yourself to the chosen course of action. It may be wise
to give yourself a time limit to make a decision, say 5 minutes or one day, then review all the information and go with what seems like
the best choice. Also, we must quickly give up the rejected alternatives; otherwise, we drag out the decision-making process much
too long. It may be helpful, especially where the decision is hard to make, to remember that in many cases there is very little difference
among the alternative solutions. All your options may work out about equally well. The task is to make a crisp, clear decision and get on with
it with zeal. It must feel right.
STEP EIGHT: Throw yourself into carrying out the
decision. Make a specific plan and schedule the work.
There has really been
no decision if there is no action. Solutions don't usually end with decisions; they begin there. It is an old military axiom
that says "a poor decision well executed is better than a good decision poorly executed." You need plans, i.e. detailed, thoughtful plans
for both (a) how to succeed and (b) how to deal with possible problems. Remember: if anything can go wrong, it will (Murphy's
Law). You need energy, hope, time and dedication. Frequently evaluate the effectiveness of your action and make changes in your plans
accordingly. Take pride in your decisiveness.
Time involved
Naturally, careful
decision-making takes more time than sloppy decisions. How much more time? In simple decisions involving two or three alternatives,
it may take only a few minutes to systematically weigh the four or five pros and cons for each choice, assuming you already
have the information you need. In complex decisions, like career choice or sexual choice, a great deal of time may be needed.
For example, in choosing a life-long occupation, to get the facts and to know how you feel about specific careers, you may need to take a course
or two in this area (150-300 hours), do some reading about the 3 to 5 occupations you are considering (20-30 hours), match your abilities and needs
against the requirements for each career you are considering, take aptitude and interest tests (10 hours), talk to a career counselor (5-10 hours),
observe and talk to practitioners in these fields (40-80 hours), talk to family and friends (4-5 hours) and have an internship in
one or two of these occupational fields (100-1000 hours). You may be saying, "That's ridiculous, no one ever does that!" You may
be right that few people do it, but that doesn't prove it is a bad idea. I think your grandchildren will do it. Considering you may spend 100,000 hours
in your career, a 100 hours--and even 1500 hours--is not too high a price to pay for making a good decision. See books about career
choice below.
Common problems
Some people are just
not patient and orderly enough to list the alternatives and weigh the pros and cons of each. Some take pride in making snap
decisions. It must be granted that sometimes the choices are so equal that no amount of time and effort will produce a clear-cut advantage
for one choice over the others. In those cases, you might have done just as well by flipping a coin in the beginning. But you
can't be certain the choices are equal until you have carefully gone through the decision-making process and considered each option.
Obviously, not every little
decision, like what movie to see, warrants all these steps. Just use the process when you need it.
Effectiveness, advantages
and dangers
This method encourages
careful consideration of several alternatives, awareness of emotional pitfalls and values, weighing the pros and cons, and
developing a game plan. Surely, this is wiser than reacting impulsively. However, there may be an even wiser middle ground. Ellen
Langer, the Harvard professor who champions "mindfulness," suggests a different mind-set to decision-making. For instance, she recommends
avoiding detailed, lengthy cost/benefit analyses (there is always more and more contradictory information to be found) and giving
up the notion of finding the one right answer for now and forever. She recommends, of course, assessing your options but recognizing the complexity
of almost all decisions, even the one's that seem simple, like what shirt or blouse to buy. The situation is likely to change; your preferences
may change; new facts may be discovered. Any new factor could change your mind. Therefore, the most important aspect of decision-making
is to keep an active, open mind to new factors and new options. Sloan (1996) recommends a similar reflective approach which is
very different from the typical weigh-the-pros-and-cons methods. Create your own options instead of passively accepting just the options
someone else tells you, you have. Remain uncertain of your decisions; if you are certain you have made the right decision, your mind
shuts down. That's bad. Guard against assuming the way things have always been done is the right way; that also closes our
minds.
Uncertainty keeps your mind active and flexible. Continued information seeking creates better ideas and wiser options.
In both the decision-making
process and in the keeping-the-mind-open process, one can take pride in his/her problem-solving.
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